[RWP] Automation

[Indigo]

Hi Jim,
I think I was doing automation correctly with on-screen controls.
They're just awkward compared to a control surface fader.
A little later I'll post the instructions for setting a mouse scroll 
wheel to do automation, everybody must have a practically unused 
physical mouse around; if nothing else featuring a fader-like control.
Here's an explanation of the difference between Trim, Latch, Write modes:

snip:
Automation envelopes are used to save and replay movements of track and 
FX parameters during playback.
?These changes can be added to envelopes manually (using the mouse) in 
Read mode, or written to envelopes as you adjust the track and FX 
parameter controls themselves, either with a mouse or using a control 
surface device (in Write, Latch or Touch mode).
?The differences between the different automation modes are summarized 
in the table below.
?In Write, Touch and Latch modes, any FX parameter rack controls that 
have been added to the track panel (in TCP or Mixer view) can be used to 
write automation.
?Regardless of which method you use to create your envelopes, they can 
be afterwards be adjusted and edited either manually; (Read mode); or by 
further tweaking the track control parameter; (Touch or Latch modes).
?Envelopes can be displayed either in individual lanes or above the 
media item itself.
Automation Mode
Description
Trim/Read
Existing envelopes are applied, but on-screen controls do not move. 
Trim/Read mode might seem strange at first, but it does bring you a 
useful benefit. You can use a track’s controls for overall changes.
For example, adjusting a track’s Volume fader in this mode will raise or 
lower the volume for that whole track relative to the envelope. In 
Trim/Read mode fader movements are not recorded: they are adjusted in 
the same way as when no envelope is present.
Read
Applies envelopes and moves controls for armed items; but does not write 
or remember any changes that you make to them.
Latch
Writes and remembers any changes that you make using the parameter 
controls (for example, an FX parameter fader control), and creates new 
points on existing track envelopes. Changes commence when you first 
adjust a setting, and continue to be remembered until playback stops.
Touch
This is similar to Latch, but stops making changes to envelope points 
when you stop adjusting them.
Write
Writes and remembers current settings as edit points, along with any 
changes that you make to parameter values for armed items during playback.
In this mode, previously written envelopes for armed items will be over 
written.REAPER's Envelope preferences include an option to automatically 
switch to another mode immediately after recording automation in Write 
mode. By default, it will switch to Trim/Read.
If you are unsure about any of these basic issues you can find out more 
by consulting the User Guide.
Parameter modulation works on a different principle. It does not record 
and replay absolute value for a track or FX parameter, but rather uses 
the value of one parameter to control another dynamically and in real 
time. For example, parameter modulation can be used to automatically 
increase a compressor's compression ratio on a vocal as that vocal gets 
louder, and to decrease it as it gets quieter.
12.2Envelope Preferences
The Envelope preferences settings are described in the User Guide 
(Chapter 19). As you check thru them (either in the guide or in the 
above screenshot), a reasonably experienced user will find that many of 
them should require no further explanation. However, some of these 
options, though important, are quite subtle and their reason for being 
there might not be so obvious. For example:
Envelope point selection follows time selection for the active envelope
In most cases I would recommend enabling this option. This will ensure 
that when you make a change to your time selection, envelope points 
within the new time selection will automatically be selected on the 
active envelope.
This is illustrated below. Notice how when the time selection is 
changed, so is the envelope point selection.
Notice how when the time selection is changed, so are the selected 
points on the currently selected envelope.
This is very handy for those times when you want to adjust together a 
range of envelope points in a particular part of your project.
Add edge points when moving envelope points
This setting determines how REAPER behaves when you move a range of 
envelope points. It can be used to resolve the question of whether the 
transition should become a smooth one or a sudden one.
This really is one of those cases where a picture is worth a thousand words:
In the first (top) picture, a group of four envelope points have been 
selected/
In the second (middle) picture, the segment between the second and third 
selected point has been lowered, with the option to add edge points enabled.
In the third (bottom) picture, the same segment has been moved, but this 
time with this option disabled.
Just as important as the envelope preference setting here are your mouse 
modifier preferences for Envelope segment left drag.
Shown here, assuming that in your preferences you have turned this 
option off, you can still use Shift Altwhen dragging to over-ride the 
normal default setting.
When adding volume/pan envelopes, apply trim to envelope and reset trim.
This is not an easy one to explain. Take your time to understand it: if 
you work with volume and/or pan envelopes you will find it useful.
Let's take the track shown here as an example. It's a reverb bus. 
Notice, as is not uncommon with such busses, that the volume fader has 
been set to quite a low level.
Let's assume that this preference option is set to Never. This is what 
happens when we add a volume envelope.
The envelope displays 0.00 dB: this is relative to the track volume 
fader. It is located vertically at the mid-way point of the envelope 
lane. Another way of thinking about it is to say that the envelope 
setting is currently the same as the track fader. If you raise the 
envelope by, say 5 dB for part of the song, then that 5 dB will be a 5 
dB increase on whatever the track fader reads. This method of working 
makes it easy to make adjustments above and below the envelope.
In this second example, the preference is set to Always. The envelope 
displays the real decibel setting – in this example -23.5 dB – whilst 
the track volume fader now reads 0.0 dB. Any adjustments that you make 
to the envelope will be shown on that envelope – and any adjustments 
that you make to the track volume fader will be relative to the envelope.
Note that in both cases, adjusting the envelope lane fader will affect 
the volume for the whole track. In both cases, the envelope will be 
physically moved up or down. In the latter case, the envelope points and 
segments will reflect the actual decibel levels. In the former case, the 
values displayed will be relative to the track fader level.
There are a number of preferences settings on other pages that will 
affect your envelopes and their behavior. You should be aware of these:
Project, Track/Send Defaults:
Whether by default to show for new tracks one or more of the following 
envelopes – volume, pan, volume (pre FX), pan (pre FX), mute
Default envelope point shape
Default automation mode
Appearance:
Whether to show tooltips with envelopes
Whether to show horizontal grid lines in automation lanes
Whether to fill automation envelopes (shade area below envelope)
Appearance, Peaks/Waveforms:
Whether to draw faint peaks in automation envelope lanes.
Tutorial: Working With Envelopes
Before moving on to looking at envelope management actions and how these 
can be applied to a custom toolbar or custom menu, here is a brief 
tutorial that reviews some of the envelope basics. Even if you think you 
don't need it, take the time to work thru it. You just might learn 
something that you didn't already know! Hopefully this will help you to 
make sense of what follows.
1.Open the supplied file WastingTime121.RPPand save it as 
WastingTime122.RPP.
2.Select the Guitarsfolder and add a volume envelope. The default 
keyboard shortcut is V; or you can click on the envelope button; 
(currently labelled trim to do this).
3.Make a time selection of the musical break that runs from about 1 min 
14 to about 1 min 40.
4.Select the envelope and use the envelope fader; (in the track's 
envelope panel) to raise this portion of the envelope by about 1.5 dB.
5.You might think that this envelope doesn't really need its own lane. 
Right-click on the envelope and untick the option Show envelope in lane.
6.The problem now is that we no longer have an envelope fader or visible 
envelope panel. We'll address this problem when we look at menu/toolbar 
customization.
7.Now select the Vocal male track and add a Pan envelope; (P). Adjust 
this so that when there is no female vocal present this track is moved 
closer to the center (see below).
8.On the Transport Bar, right click over the first button (this is the 
Global Auto button) and choose Read (play all folders with armed 
envelopes)as your global over-ride mode.
9.Play the song. The faders on those tracks with envelopes will move 
with the envelopes.
10.Set global auto over-ride back to No Global Override; (from the 
transport toolbar, as in step 8.)
11.Now select the Vocals Reverb track and right-click over its envelope 
button to set its mode to Latch. Ensure the track controls are visible 
and identify the ReaVerbate: Wetbutton. We are going to use this to turn 
up the reverb a little near the end of the song.
12.Position the play cursor at about 2 min 07 sec and start to play the 
song. When it gets t0 2 min 20 sec, raise the wet level to about -4.0 db.
13.Stop the song at the end. Your track control movements have been 
recorded as an envelope.
14.Set the automation mode for this track to Trim/Read and disable the 
option to show this envelope in a lane.
15.Select the Guitarsfolder. Right-click over the FX button and select 
the chorus plug-in to display it.
16.Click on the rotary wet/dry mix control; (next to the 4 in 4 out pin 
connector) then on Param then in Show track envelope to set up a track 
envelope.
17.Make the same time selection as in step 3. and use the envelope lane 
horizontal fader to raise this to 20%
18.Close the chorus window.
19.Save the file.
20.Notice that when you play back, even in Trim/Read mode, the track 
control for the wet reverb level will move as the level is adjusted.
You might have found some of those steps a bit fiddly. We are now going 
to see how custom actions, menus and toolbars can be made to make them a 
little easier.
12.3Envelope Actions
If you open the action list and type “envelope” in the filter box you'll 
see that there is no shortage of actions available for managing 
envelopes. Most of them fall into one of a number of categories (such as 
actions for setting point shape, actions for displaying/hiding envelope, 
and so on) but there are also a few that deserve singling out 
individually. Here are some of the main categories.
Set track automation mode
Set global automation override
Cut/copy/paste point actions (e.g. selected points, points within time 
selection)
Delete points (e.g. selected points, points within time selection)
Insert point
Invert selected points
Reduce number of points
Move points (selected) up/down/left/right
Hide/show envelopes (e.g. all tracks, selected tracks)
Set default point shape
Set shape of selected points
Lock/unlock envelopes
Here are some of the actions which merit an individual mention:
Envelope: Clear envelope: can be used to remove all envelope points and 
optionally also remove the envelope.
Envelope: Insert 4 envelope points at time selection: when the envelope 
is shown in its own lane, moving the fader in the envelope panel does 
this automatically as it raises or lowers the portion of the envelope 
that falls within the time selection. This action is useful when the 
envelope is not shown in its own lane but is above the media item(s).
Envelope: Reduce number of points: good for tidying up an envelope in 
those situations when writing automation data has produced an envelope 
with too many points.
Envelope: Reset selected points to zero/center: especially good for 
cleaning up mistakes!
FX: Show/hide track envelope for last touched FX parameter: simply a 
brilliant way to add envelopes direct from an FX window parameter 
controls; or from track controls.
Most of these actions can also be found on the Envelope segment and/or 
Envelope point context menus.
I would definitely suggest that you consider adding; Envelope: Insert 4 
envelope points at time selection; to the Envelope segment context menu.
12.4A Custom Envelope Management Toolbar
Below is shown a suggested possible toolbar that you could use when 
working with envelopes. As with other custom toolbars, your choice of 
which actions to include will be a personal one. For example, I have not 
included any actions for copying and pasting envelope points because I 
seldom need to do this.
In view of the explanations on the previous page, many of these require 
no further comment. However, you might wish to note these:
Track automation mode.
Four actions are included to easily select automation mode for 
individual tracks.
Global override.
I often like to set global override mode to read to check on automation 
activity during playback, or to trim/read for making adjustments. The 
action to set global override off will return track automation modes to 
their individual settings.
Locking.
Being able to toggle the locking of envelopes helps to prevent 
accidental changes from being made to envelopes. Envelope locking will 
only be applied if global locking is enabled; (main toolbar).
Envelope: Unselect all points.
If you have your Envelope segment mouse modifiers set up as in the 
example in Chapter 2 (section 2.7) then you can use Alt+double-click to 
unselect all envelope points. It doesn't do any harm to also have a 
button for this.
Envelope lane toggle actions.
These are a great help with your management of screen real estate: show 
the envelopes in lanes when you are working on them, remove the lanes 
when you are not. See note below.
Envelope show/hide actions.
Again, this one is very much about real estate management: these actions 
give you fingertip control!
Note:Here is an interesting variation. You can create a custom action 
which will toggle all envelopes on all tracks in and out of lanes, then 
assign this action to your toolbar. Here are the actions that you will 
need to include in your custom action:
SWS: Save current track selectionTrack: Select all tracksEnvelope: 
Toggle display all visible envelopes in lanes for tracksSWS: Restore 
saved track selection
12.5Envelope Management Resources
A toolbar similar to that created in the above tutorial is included with 
your resource material. The file is called 
UnlockedAutomation01.ReaperMenu. It is located in the 
\Resources\Toolbars folder.
If you import it as it is, it will be imported into REAPER as Floating 
Toolbar 6. You will need (in the Customize menus/toolbars window) to 
select Floating Toolbar 6 before importing it. If you wish to keep your 
present floating toolbar 6 and import this as something else (e.g. 
Floating Toolbar 7), simply do this before importing it.
1.Open the file with any text editor (such as Notepad or PSPad).
2.Edit the first line, from [Floating toolbar 6] to [Floating toolbar 7] 
(or whatever).
3.Save the file.
4.Import the modified file in the usual way.

Automation envelopes are used to save and replay movements of track and 
FX parameters during playback.
?These changes can be added to envelopes manually (using the mouse) in 
Read mode, or written to envelopes as you adjust the track and FX 
parameter controls themselves, either with a mouse or using a control 
surface device (in Write, Latch or Touch mode).
?The differences between the different automation modes are summarized 
in the table below.
?In Write, Touch and Latch modes, any FX parameter rack controls that 
have been added to the track panel (in TCP or Mixer view) can be used to 
write automation.
?Regardless of which method you use to create your envelopes, they can 
be afterwards be adjusted and edited either manually; (Read mode); or by 
further tweaking the track control parameter; (Touch or Latch modes).
?Envelopes can be displayed either in individual lanes or above the 
media item itself.
Automation Mode
Description
Trim/Read
Existing envelopes are applied, but on-screen controls do not move. 
Trim/Read mode might seem strange at first, but it does bring you a 
useful benefit. You can use a track’s controls for overall changes.
For example, adjusting a track’s Volume fader in this mode will raise or 
lower the volume for that whole track relative to the envelope. In 
Trim/Read mode fader movements are not recorded: they are adjusted in 
the same way as when no envelope is present.
Read
Applies envelopes and moves controls for armed items; but does not write 
or remember any changes that you make to them.
Latch
Writes and remembers any changes that you make using the parameter 
controls (for example, an FX parameter fader control), and creates new 
points on existing track envelopes. Changes commence when you first 
adjust a setting, and continue to be remembered until playback stops.
Touch
This is similar to Latch, but stops making changes to envelope points 
when you stop adjusting them.
Write
Writes and remembers current settings as edit points, along with any 
changes that you make to parameter values for armed items during playback.
In this mode, previously written envelopes for armed items will be over 
written.REAPER's Envelope preferences include an option to automatically 
switch to another mode immediately after recording automation in Write 
mode. By default, it will switch to Trim/Read.
If you are unsure about any of these basic issues you can find out more 
by consulting the User Guide.
Parameter modulation works on a different principle. It does not record 
and replay absolute value for a track or FX parameter, but rather uses 
the value of one parameter to control another dynamically and in real 
time. For example, parameter modulation can be used to automatically 
increase a compressor's compression ratio on a vocal as that vocal gets 
louder, and to decrease it as it gets quieter.
12.2Envelope Preferences
The Envelope preferences settings are described in the User Guide 
(Chapter 19). As you check thru them (either in the guide or in the 
above screenshot), a reasonably experienced user will find that many of 
them should require no further explanation. However, some of these 
options, though important, are quite subtle and their reason for being 
there might not be so obvious. For example:
Envelope point selection follows time selection for the active envelope
In most cases I would recommend enabling this option. This will ensure 
that when you make a change to your time selection, envelope points 
within the new time selection will automatically be selected on the 
active envelope.
This is illustrated below. Notice how when the time selection is 
changed, so is the envelope point selection.
Notice how when the time selection is changed, so are the selected 
points on the currently selected envelope.
This is very handy for those times when you want to adjust together a 
range of envelope points in a particular part of your project.
Add edge points when moving envelope points
This setting determines how REAPER behaves when you move a range of 
envelope points. It can be used to resolve the question of whether the 
transition should become a smooth one or a sudden one.
This really is one of those cases where a picture is worth a thousand words:
In the first (top) picture, a group of four envelope points have been 
selected/
In the second (middle) picture, the segment between the second and third 
selected point has been lowered, with the option to add edge points enabled.
In the third (bottom) picture, the same segment has been moved, but this 
time with this option disabled.
Just as important as the envelope preference setting here are your mouse 
modifier preferences for Envelope segment left drag.
Shown here, assuming that in your preferences you have turned this 
option off, you can still use Shift Altwhen dragging to over-ride the 
normal default setting.
When adding volume/pan envelopes, apply trim to envelope and reset trim.
This is not an easy one to explain. Take your time to understand it: if 
you work with volume and/or pan envelopes you will find it useful.
Let's take the track shown here as an example. It's a reverb bus. 
Notice, as is not uncommon with such busses, that the volume fader has 
been set to quite a low level.
Let's assume that this preference option is set to Never. This is what 
happens when we add a volume envelope.
The envelope displays 0.00 dB: this is relative to the track volume 
fader. It is located vertically at the mid-way point of the envelope 
lane. Another way of thinking about it is to say that the envelope 
setting is currently the same as the track fader. If you raise the 
envelope by, say 5 dB for part of the song, then that 5 dB will be a 5 
dB increase on whatever the track fader reads. This method of working 
makes it easy to make adjustments above and below the envelope.
In this second example, the preference is set to Always. The envelope 
displays the real decibel setting – in this example -23.5 dB – whilst 
the track volume fader now reads 0.0 dB. Any adjustments that you make 
to the envelope will be shown on that envelope – and any adjustments 
that you make to the track volume fader will be relative to the envelope.
Note that in both cases, adjusting the envelope lane fader will affect 
the volume for the whole track. In both cases, the envelope will be 
physically moved up or down. In the latter case, the envelope points and 
segments will reflect the actual decibel levels. In the former case, the 
values displayed will be relative to the track fader level.
There are a number of preferences settings on other pages that will 
affect your envelopes and their behavior. You should be aware of these:
Project, Track/Send Defaults:
Whether by default to show for new tracks one or more of the following 
envelopes – volume, pan, volume (pre FX), pan (pre FX), mute
Default envelope point shape
Default automation mode
Appearance:
Whether to show tooltips with envelopes
Whether to show horizontal grid lines in automation lanes
Whether to fill automation envelopes (shade area below envelope)
Appearance, Peaks/Waveforms:
Whether to draw faint peaks in automation envelope lanes.
Tutorial: Working With Envelopes
Before moving on to looking at envelope management actions and how these 
can be applied to a custom toolbar or custom menu, here is a brief 
tutorial that reviews some of the envelope basics. Even if you think you 
don't need it, take the time to work thru it. You just might learn 
something that you didn't already know! Hopefully this will help you to 
make sense of what follows.
1.Open the supplied file WastingTime121.RPPand save it as 
WastingTime122.RPP.
2.Select the Guitarsfolder and add a volume envelope. The default 
keyboard shortcut is V; or you can click on the envelope button; 
(currently labelled trim to do this).
3.Make a time selection of the musical break that runs from about 1 min 
14 to about 1 min 40.
4.Select the envelope and use the envelope fader; (in the track's 
envelope panel) to raise this portion of the envelope by about 1.5 dB.
5.You might think that this envelope doesn't really need its own lane. 
Right-click on the envelope and untick the option Show envelope in lane.
6.The problem now is that we no longer have an envelope fader or visible 
envelope panel. We'll address this problem when we look at menu/toolbar 
customization.
7.Now select the Vocal male track and add a Pan envelope; (P). Adjust 
this so that when there is no female vocal present this track is moved 
closer to the center (see below).
8.On the Transport Bar, right click over the first button (this is the 
Global Auto button) and choose Read (play all folders with armed 
envelopes)as your global over-ride mode.
9.Play the song. The faders on those tracks with envelopes will move 
with the envelopes.
10.Set global auto over-ride back to No Global Override; (from the 
transport toolbar, as in step 8.)
11.Now select the Vocals Reverb track and right-click over its envelope 
button to set its mode to Latch. Ensure the track controls are visible 
and identify the ReaVerbate: Wetbutton. We are going to use this to turn 
up the reverb a little near the end of the song.
12.Position the play cursor at about 2 min 07 sec and start to play the 
song. When it gets t0 2 min 20 sec, raise the wet level to about -4.0 db.
13.Stop the song at the end. Your track control movements have been 
recorded as an envelope.
14.Set the automation mode for this track to Trim/Read and disable the 
option to show this envelope in a lane.
15.Select the Guitarsfolder. Right-click over the FX button and select 
the chorus plug-in to display it.
16.Click on the rotary wet/dry mix control; (next to the 4 in 4 out pin 
connector) then on Param then in Show track envelope to set up a track 
envelope.
17.Make the same time selection as in step 3. and use the envelope lane 
horizontal fader to raise this to 20%
18.Close the chorus window.
19.Save the file.
20.Notice that when you play back, even in Trim/Read mode, the track 
control for the wet reverb level will move as the level is adjusted.
You might have found some of those steps a bit fiddly. We are now going 
to see how custom actions, menus and toolbars can be made to make them a 
little easier.
12.3Envelope Actions
If you open the action list and type “envelope” in the filter box you'll 
see that there is no shortage of actions available for managing 
envelopes. Most of them fall into one of a number of categories (such as 
actions for setting point shape, actions for displaying/hiding envelope, 
and so on) but there are also a few that deserve singling out 
individually. Here are some of the main categories.
Set track automation mode
Set global automation override
Cut/copy/paste point actions (e.g. selected points, points within time 
selection)
Delete points (e.g. selected points, points within time selection)
Insert point
Invert selected points
Reduce number of points
Move points (selected) up/down/left/right
Hide/show envelopes (e.g. all tracks, selected tracks)
Set default point shape
Set shape of selected points
Lock/unlock envelopes
Here are some of the actions which merit an individual mention:
Envelope: Clear envelope: can be used to remove all envelope points and 
optionally also remove the envelope.
Envelope: Insert 4 envelope points at time selection: when the envelope 
is shown in its own lane, moving the fader in the envelope panel does 
this automatically as it raises or lowers the portion of the envelope 
that falls within the time selection. This action is useful when the 
envelope is not shown in its own lane but is above the media item(s).
Envelope: Reduce number of points: good for tidying up an envelope in 
those situations when writing automation data has produced an envelope 
with too many points.
Envelope: Reset selected points to zero/center: especially good for 
cleaning up mistakes!
FX: Show/hide track envelope for last touched FX parameter: simply a 
brilliant way to add envelopes direct from an FX window parameter 
controls; or from track controls.
Most of these actions can also be found on the Envelope segment and/or 
Envelope point context menus.
I would definitely suggest that you consider adding; Envelope: Insert 4 
envelope points at time selection; to the Envelope segment context menu.
12.4A Custom Envelope Management Toolbar
Below is shown a suggested possible toolbar that you could use when 
working with envelopes. As with other custom toolbars, your choice of 
which actions to include will be a personal one. For example, I have not 
included any actions for copying and pasting envelope points because I 
seldom need to do this.
In view of the explanations on the previous page, many of these require 
no further comment. However, you might wish to note these:
Track automation mode.
Four actions are included to easily select automation mode for 
individual tracks.
Global override.
I often like to set global override mode to read to check on automation 
activity during playback, or to trim/read for making adjustments. The 
action to set global override off will return track automation modes to 
their individual settings.
Locking.
Being able to toggle the locking of envelopes helps to prevent 
accidental changes from being made to envelopes. Envelope locking will 
only be applied if global locking is enabled; (main toolbar).
Envelope: Unselect all points.
If you have your Envelope segment mouse modifiers set up as in the 
example in Chapter 2 (section 2.7) then you can use Alt+double-click to 
unselect all envelope points. It doesn't do any harm to also have a 
button for this.
Envelope lane toggle actions.
These are a great help with your management of screen real estate: show 
the envelopes in lanes when you are working on them, remove the lanes 
when you are not. See note below.
Envelope show/hide actions.
Again, this one is very much about real estate management: these actions 
give you fingertip control!
Note:Here is an interesting variation. You can create a custom action 
which will toggle all envelopes on all tracks in and out of lanes, then 
assign this action to your toolbar. Here are the actions that you will 
need to include in your custom action:
SWS: Save current track selectionTrack: Select all tracksEnvelope: 
Toggle display all visible envelopes in lanes for tracksSWS: Restore 
saved track selection
12.5Envelope Management Resources
A toolbar similar to that created in the above tutorial is included with 
your resource material. The file is called 
UnlockedAutomation01.ReaperMenu. It is located in the 
\Resources\Toolbars folder.
If you import it as it is, it will be imported into REAPER as Floating 
Toolbar 6. You will need (in the Customize menus/toolbars window) to 
select Floating Toolbar 6 before importing it. If you wish to keep your 
present floating toolbar 6 and import this as something else (e.g. 
Floating Toolbar 7), simply do this before importing it.
1.Open the file with any text editor (such as Notepad or PSPad).
2.Edit the first line, from [Floating toolbar 6] to [Floating toolbar 7] 
(or whatever).
3.Save the file.
4.Import the modified file in the usual way. end snip.